GROWTH OF POPULATION

The earliest attempt to enumerate residents of this district was made in 1847, when its population totalled 4,81,224 persons giving a density of 287 persons per sq. mile. The estimates of 1849 showed a total population of 5,83,487 persons, but the figures were generally discredited owing to the crude system of estimation adopted, and in 1853, when a larger degree of efficiency in these matters was attained, the population was shown to be 6,10,995 persons with a density of 364 persons to a sq. mile. The next census of 1865 showed a total of 6,27,378 persons or 384 to the sq. mile. At the census of 1872, the population rose to 6,68,641 persons with the density of 395 persons to a sq. mile. The next decade ,saw an addition of 53,730 persons to the earlier figure and the population stood at 7,22,371 persons, which gave an average density of 426 persons to the sq. mile. During the next decade the growth was slow, and the census of 1891 gave a total population of 7,29,629 persons, with a density of 430 persons per sq. mile.

The decennial growth with variation in population during the period 1901-1971 was as follows :

A noteworthy feature is that between 1901 and 1921 the population of the district recorded a decrease of 9.29 per cent, when that of the State decreased by about 4 per cent. The havoc caused by plague and malaria accounts for the decrease between 1901 and 1911. Due to heavy mortality from influenza epidemic in 1918-19, a decrease had been recorded in the second decade. Abnormal deaths did not occur or were prevented from occurring in the past 1941 period and The population of the district recorded an increase of 72.55 per cent between the census of 1941 and 1971, Compared to this the increase in population of State during the corresponding period has been 61.83 per cent. But during the decade 1961-71, the rate of growth of population of the district was 22.46, which was higher than the State average of 19.78 per cent

In 1971, the district population was 14,47,702 persons, of whom 7,92,751 were the males and 6,54,951 females and in respect of. population this district occupies 35th position in State. The area of the district in 1971, according to Central Statistical Organisation was 4^327 sq. km. and from area point of view, this district stands at 41st position in the State.

The density of population of the district in 1971 was 335 persons per sq. km. as against the State average of 300 persons per sq. km In 1961, the density of district was 262 persons per sq. km. The most densely populated tahsil (including urban and rural areas) in 1971 was Etawah, the density being 359 persons per sq. km. Next was Auraiya having density of 325 persons per sq. km. Bharthana 305 persons per sq. km. and the last is Bidhuna with density of 298 persons per sq. km. In the district the rural density is 303 persons per sq. km. and the urban 7,545 persons per sq. km. These figures in 1961 were 239 persons per sq. km and 6,869 persons per sq. km. respectively.

The sex ratio of the district in 1971 was found to be 826 females per 1,000 males, which was considerably lower than the State average of 879. The sex ratio in rural and urban area was 824 and 851 respectively. The tahsilwise sex ratio in 1971 was 829 in Auraiya, 820 in Bharthana, 833 in Etawah and 819 in Bidhuna. The variation in sex ratio since 1901, which has not been uniform, was as follows :

The distribution of population according to different age groups in 1971, was as follows :

In 1961, The districts has fout tehsils viz Auraiya,Bharthana,Etawah and Bidhuna which included 1477 inhabiteted villages and five towns ( as classified by census) . The towns contains 9.79 percentage of the districts population. The population of the towns with other details as in 1971, was as follows:

Since March 1974, the town area of Bharthana has been converted into municipality. The district contains five more town areas namely Phaphoond, Achhalda, Ekdil, Dibiyapur and Bidhuna but they were not recosnised as towns by census, as they did not ful fill the urban conditions as laid down by the census of India.

The tehsil wise break-up of population with the no. of villages and town, as in 1971 was as follows:

The extend of population in 1477 in habitated villages as in 1971was as follows:

About 90.21 per cent of the people lived in rural areas. Out of 1,477 inhabited villages, 553 were of small size, each having less than 500 inhabitants, while medium-sized villages with a population varying between 500 and 2,000 numbered 801. The remaining 123 villages were large ones, with a population of above 2,000 persons. A Statement (No. 1) showing area and population of the district in 1961 and 1971 is appended at the end of the chapter;

In 1961, among the people enumerated in the district 88.1, per cent were born within the district, 10.4 per cent in other districts of the State, 1.3 per cent in other parts of India and 0.1 per cent in other countries. Among those from other countries, 1,149 were from Pakistan, 76 from Nepal, 7 from Burma, 3 from Afghanistan, 2 from Ceylon and one from South Africa. Among rural population, 89.2 per cent were born within the district, 9.6 per cent in other districts of State), 1.1 per cent in other parts of India and 0.02 per cent in other countries. The corresponding figures for the urban population was 77.3 per cent born within the district, 18.7 per cent in other districts of the State, 3.1 per cent in other parts of India and 0.9 per cent in other countries. Of the immigrants from adjacent States, 12.144 persons were from Madhya Pradesh, 1,063 persons from Punjab, 940 from Rajasthan, 337 from Delhi and 208 from Bihar. The number of immigrants from other districts of the State was 1,22,926.

The figures for the number of immigrants from the district are not available. However, some Muslim families did migrate to Pakistan in 1947. Some people also went out in search of employment or in Connection with trade or business, or on account of marriages.

After 1947. about 2,477 (males 1,347 and females 1,835) displaced persons particularly Hindus, Sikhs and Jains, mostly from Pakistan came to this district. As per census records of 1951, 20 such persons arrived in 1916, I 580 in 1947, 528 in 1948, 57 in 194Q, 15 in 1950, 1 in 1951, and 62 in unstated years. Till the census of 1971 there had been no substantial rise in their numbers. Most of the displaced persons preferred to settle in the urban areas of the district.

The displaced persons were accomodated by the government through extensive lehabilitation programmes in agriculture, government departments and in trade and industry and generous assistance in the form of loans and advances, licence for the sale of certain controlled items, allotment of agricultural land and plots for shops or residential purpose on nominal cost were made available. They are now fully integrated in the local society and properly identified with it.

The language of practically the entire population is what is known as western Hindi. The returns of the census 1971 showed that this language was spoken by about 96.4 per cent of the population. In 1961, the percentage of Hindi speaking persons was 95.5. Western Hindi is split up into several subdivisions. In 1971, the language known as Hindustani or Urdu was spoken fey about 3.35 per cent (4.3 per cent in 1961) of the people, representing for the most part the inhabitants of Etawah city, while the bulk of the people spoke Antarbedi, or its varient called Pachharua, so called after the tract of that name. In the trans-Yarnuna portion of the district the dialect is known as Bhadauri, which is a form of Bundelkhandi, itself a branch of Hindi. It derives its name from Bhadawar, the home of the Bhadoria Rajputs. A few people also speak Punjabi, Bengali or Sindhi.

Devanagri script is being used for Hindi and its allied branches such as Garhwali, Kumauni etc., and the script used for Urdu is Persian. The other languages generally using their own scripts.

The numbers of the followers of different religions in the district, as in 1971, were as follows :

Thus in 1971, there were 93.44 per cent Hindus in the district against the State average of 83.76 and 6,13 per cent Muslims as compared to the State average of 15.48 per cent. The remaining 0.43 per cent of the district population was comprised of Sikhs, Christians, Jains and Buddhists.

Hindu

This major community was originally divided into four branches, viz: Branmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, but later on one more sect originated from the Shudra and this was known as Achut or Antyaj (untouchables). This ancient division was mainly occupational but gradually developed into a hereditary order. Now in modern society, due to the impact of progressive social and economic forces, the old caste structure is crumbling though somewhat slowly. It has already lost its rigidity. There are several social groups like Kayasths, Gujars- etc., whom it is difficult to catagorise among the ancient four castes.

Among the Brahmans, the more numerous are of Kanaujia subdivision and most of them belong to Dube family. There are some Sanadhya Brahmans mainly residing in Auraiya tahsil.

The Rajputs, who claim to be Kshatriyas, have a good representation. They are most numerous in Bharthana and Auraiya tahsils. Their important clans represented here are the Chauhans, Sengars, Bhadaurias, Kachhwahas, Gaurs and Parihars. The other Rajput clans settled here are the Bais, Jadon, Tomars, Rathors, Sikarwars, Panwars, Chandrabansis, Raghubansis and Bargujars.

Vaishyas are evenly distributed throughout the district and most of them are traders and money-lenders by profession. Their subdivisions represented here are the Agarwal, Baranwal, Mahajan, Mahor, Gahoi, Omar, Jhamaiya, Kesharwani, Jaini, Sarabgi, Maheshwari and Bishnois,

The occupational groups like Koris, Kahars, Nais, Dhanuks, Kurmis, Dhobis, Kumhars, Barhais, Malis and Lohars, which together form a small percentage of the Hindu population, are spread throughout the district.

About two dozen subdivisions of the Scheduled Castes are represented in the district. -In 1971, they numbered 3,54,333, and formed nearly 24.47 per cent of the district population and 26.1 per cent of the Hindus. They contribute to 25.70 per cent of the rural population and 13.19 per cent of the urban population. Among them, the more important subdivisions are the Chamars (Dhusia, Jhusia or Jatava), Dhanuk, Dhobi, Korwa, Balmiki etc.

The Scheduled Tribes, who are 401 in number, formed 0.03 percent of the district population. They are mainly confined to Etawah tahsil. The tahsilwise distribution of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, as in 1971, was as given below:

Muslim

The majority of Muslims in the district belong to the Sunni sect. Among them the most numerous are the Sheiks. Their main subdivisions represented here are. the Qurreshis and Siddiqis and most of them are residing in Etawah tahsil. Pathans are more evenly distributed than Sheiks, but like them are more numerous in Etawah than in the other tahsils; they belong for the most part to the Gori, Lodi and Yusufzai clans.

The remaining Muslim subdivisions, mostly occupational are the Darzi, Hajjam, Dhobi, Qassab, Faqir, Lohar and Bhisti etc.

Sikh

In 1971, there were 1,766 Sikhs in the .district, of whom 928 were males and 838 females, residing, mainly in urban areas and only 428 in the rural areas. They constitute 0.l2 per cent of the district population:

Christian

In 1971, there were 353 Christians, of whom 179 were males and 174 females and 209 of them were residing in rural areas. They constitute only 0.03 per cent of the district population.

Jain

They numbered 2,896 in 1971, with 2,364 residing in urban areas, males and females being 1,548 and 1,348 respectively. They are usually called Saraogis.

Buddhist

In 1971, they numbered 1,175, of whom 657 were males and majority of them were residing in rural areas. They constitute about 0.08 per cent of the district population.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

Of Hindus - Hinduism, as practical in the district Is a collection of diverse beliefs, doctrines and practices ranging from polytheism to absolute monism the (individual soul) with the Parmatman. The most unique feature of Hindu religious belief is transmigration of the soul, and rebirth after death according to one's actions in life. It includes the worship of a pantheon of gods in their various aspects, the chief being Siva, Vishnu, Rama, Sita, Krishna, Surya, Hanuman, Ganesh and nine incarnations of the Devi viz; Shailputri, Brahmacharni, Chitrghanta. Kusmandani. Skandmata, Katyayani, Kalratri Mahagauri and Sidhmata. The practice of taking a dip in holy rivers is also common. Temples dedicated to various deities are normal centres of religious congregation and worship. Some people have a separate place for puja in their homes. Fasts are also observed on various week-days or according to the dates of the lunar months and on the important festivals like Nav Durga, Ram Naumi, Janmasthmi, Shivaratri, etc. Discourses and recitations (katha) from religious books like the Gita, Srimad Bhagwata and Ramayana, and collective singing of devotional hymns (kirtan) are also sometimes arranged privately or publicly. The illiterates and more backward sections of the community, on the other hand, indulge in various superstitions and the propitiation of ghosts or spirits, etc.

The most conspicuous temple in Etawah city is the Tiksi Mahadeo temple, which is situated way down among ravines on the Gwalior road and is built on a high buttressed platform which raises it considerably above the road ways beneath it. Its erection is ascribed to one Angad Rai in about 1780 A. D. The religious gatherings at this temple are held in Phalguna and Sravana. Adjoining it is another temple at Kali Devi. The Nilkanth temple at Etawah city is also of great religious importance and contains a well, renowned for the healing power of its water, which is carried in tins by those suffering -particularly from chest diseases. The bathing ghats along the Yamuna river are lined, by a few temples, that of Damaneshwar being the most ancient. The prominent ghat, is the Bisrant. A well-frequented Hindu temple in Etawah city is the Asthala having Radha-Krishna as its main deities and also containing Nar-Singha idol and an unusual pillar being known as . Garunj-i-ka-khamba which is smaller at the base than at the top where it is surrounded by a stone cage having an idol of Lord Garun. The sides of the pillar are earned mainly with serpents. This temple was built in 1800 A. D., and every year in November this idol is taken and carried out in procession. Among the Siva temples, those at Salempur Gwari, Nagaria, Harchandpur, Baralok-pur, Dibiapur, Phanhund. Bharthana. are of greater religious significance. The temple of Kalka Devi at Lakhna, Jwala Devi .at Ruruganj and Mahamai Devi at Mahamai are prominent among the temples of Devis. The Hanuman temples at Jugramau and Pilua are famous.

Arya Samajists, who are monotheists repudiating idol worship and rituals are numerous here. The movement came over to this part in 1884, and gradually acquired strength. The members of this religious institution do not worship in the temples and generally perform the Sandhya. prayers. Some of the staunch followers of this sect also perform the daily hawan. Vaishnavism. as practised by the Bishnoi sect, gives pre-eminence to Vishnu, who are said to derive their name from the twenty-nine (bis-nau) articles of faith inculcated by their founder Johambaji.

Of Muslims - The Muslims believe in one God i.e. Allah and follow the principles laid down by their prophet Muhammad. Islam enjoins five duties upon its followers-the recitation of Kalma (an expression of faith in God and the prophet Muhammad); the offering of namaz (prayers) five times a day, preferably at a mosque (individually or in congregation), being known as namaz of Fajr, Zuhar, Asr, Maghrib and Isha; to keep roza (fast) during the Ramazan month-, haj to Mecca and giving zakat (charity). Their holy book is the Quran, and one who memorises and recites it, is called hafiz.

The Muslims try to offer namaz regularly but are quite particular about the namaz of Friday. On important festivals like Id-ul-Fitr and Id-ul-Zuha, they offer namaz collectively at Idqahs and Jama Masjid. The sacrifice of animals is also a common feature of the occasion of Id-ul-Zuha. The district contains manv mosques, but the important ones are at Etawah, Phaphund, Ekdil and Purwa Rawat. Many Muslims also put their faith in pirs (saints) and hold urs celebrations The Milad celebrations, to commemorate the birth of prophet in the month of Rabi, are also arranged here with great rejoicings, when the houses are illuminated and religious discourses highlighting the teaching of Islam are made. Among mosques, the Jama Masjid of Etawah, is the principal place of worship for the Muslims.

Of Sikhs—Sikhism is a monotheistic religion disavowing idolatory. There is no caste distinction. This religion enjoins on its believers, the wearing of a kangi (comb), a kara (iron-bangle), a kirpan (dagger) and kachho. (shorts) and prohibits the cutting of _fkesh (hair). The Grantha Saheb is the holy book of the Sikhs, who attend congregational prayers at gurdwafa (their place of worship). They celebrate the birth anniversaries of their gurus, when the Grantha Saheb is taken out in procession. They also perform collective marriages in gurdwaras. In summer they offer water and free sweet drinks to all people on certain occasions.

Of Christians - The Christians believe in one God His only son Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit, the resurrection of dead and everlasting life. The Bible is their holy book, and congregational prayers are performed in churches or chapels, particularly on Sundays. This practice also serves the purpose of a social get-together.

Of Buddhists- As elsewhere, Buddhists believe in the eightfold middle path of righteousness viz Satya Vishwas. Satya Vichar, Satya Bhasan, Satya Karma, Satya Nirvaih. Satya Prayatna, Satya Dhyan and Satya Bhas (right belief, right aspiration, right speech, right action, right living, right effort, right recollection and right rapture). This path ends sorrow and leads to the attainment of peace, enlightenment and nirvana. They worship in their temples and generally offer regular prayers at home.

Of Jains-The Jains believe in- tri-ratna (three gems—-right faith, right knowledge and right conduct), which leads them to the path of moksha (liberation). According to their belief, the universe has no beginning and will have no end, and no creator is necessary to explain the cosmic phenomena. They believe in the doctrine of Ahimsa the lay of karma, and worship the images of the tirthan-karas or Jinas in their temples.

Hindu -Their series of festivals commence with Sheetla Ashtmi, which falls on the 8th day of the first fortnight of Chaitra, the first month of the Hindu calender, when goddess Sheetla is worshipped. The 9th day of the bright fortnight of that month is called Ram Naumi, when the birthday of Rama is celebrated with great rejoicings and fairs are held at Lakhna and other places. The 10th day of the latter half of.Jyaistha is called the Ganga or Jeth Dasahra, when the Hindus take a bath in the river/ Nag Panchami falls on the 5th day of the bright half of Sravana, when the Nagas or serpent gods are worshipped by offering of milk, flowers and rice. On Raksha Bandhan, which falls on 15th day of bright half of the same month, rakhis (thread symbolising protection) ate tied by sisters around the right wrist of their brothers and by Brahmana priests to their patrons. Janmashtmi is observed on-the 8th day of the dark half of Bhadra to commemorate the birth anniversary of Lord Krishna. The 30th day of Asvina is the Pitra Visarjan Amavasya, when -manes are propitiated. The worship-'of Durga is continued for nine day during the bright half of Asvina, known as Nav-Ratri and the 9th day of that is knownras Durga Naumi. The next day is Dasahra or Vijaya Dashmi, dedicated to the worship of goddess Vijaya,- also commemorating the victory of Rama over . Ravana. The Ramlila celebrations are held at various places in the district. The 4th day of the bright half of Kartika is called Karva Chauth, when married women keep fast for the well-being of their husbands. .Deepawali falls on the last day of the dark fortnight of Kartika. but festivities start two days earlier with Dhan Teras, celebrated as the birth day of Dhanvantri, the divine physician. On the main day of the festival every Hindu house is illuminated and the goddess Lakshmi is worshipped. On the third day of Deepawali, after Govardhan and Chitragupta or Dawait puja, Bhaiya Dweej is celebrated when ladies put Roli mark (tika) on the forehead of their brothers. On the 8th day of bright half of that month, the Gopasthmi is celebrated when the cow is worshipped. A big bathing festival is organised on Kartika Puran-mashi, the full moon day, when people take a bath in the river and fairs are held at different places in the district. The Sakat Chauth falls on the 4th day of the dark half of Magha when the male children cut the figure of a goat made of til and their mothers keep fasts. The Makar Sankranti coincides with the transit of the sun from Dhanu to Makara and is celebrated as a bathing festivals and falls on the llth day of dark fortnight of Magha. Vasant Panchami, which falls on the 5th day of the later fortnight of Magha, is devoted to the worship of Saraswati, the goddess of learning. Shivaratri is celebrated in honour of Siva's wedding, and falls on the 13th day of the dark half of Phalguna. A fast is observed and the temples of siva are specially decorated. For the Arya Samajists, Shivaratri is a memorable day because Dayananda, the son of a devotee of Siva and the founder of tltis school got enlightenment on this night. They celebrate the week preceding this day as Rishi-bodha-saptah and arrange discourses by learned scholars for the .seven days. Holi is the concluding and important of festivals of Vikram Era falling on the last day of Phalguna, when bonfires are lighted on cross-roads at a fixed time, to commemorate the annihilation of all evil forces of the previous year represented by the demon god's sister Holika. The ears of the newly harvested barley are roasted in them to serve as on offering to the god. The most interesting feature of this festival is the squirting of coloured water and the rubbing of coloured powder (abir and gulal) in a frolicsome mood. On this occasion people exchange greetings by visiting the houses of their friends and relations. The rural inhabitants also sing phaags on dholak, the favourite songs of the seasoial This festival is gradually assuming the status of a national festival celebrated by all sect — Sikhs, Muslims and Christians also participating, except the very orthodox among them.

About sixty fairs, big and small, are held annually in the district. Most of the festivals are accompanied by local fairs too. Of these, the exhibition and cattle fair of Etawah and Achhalda are the most important. They are attended by about 50,000 to 1,00,000 persons and heads of cattle sold number between 4.000 to 10,000. The details. regarding fairs are being mentioned in the list given at the end of the chapter.

Muslim

They celebrate almost all the important festivals, but the number of their festivals is limited. The important ones are being given below :

Their festivals start with the Ashra (Muharram), which falls on the 10th day of Muharram. The first ten days of the month of Muharram are devoted to commemorate the martyrdom of Imam Husain, the grandson of the Prophet of Islam and His companions on the battle field of Karbala, and are particularly observed as a mourning period by the Shias. On Ashra, the last of the ten days being the most important one. when Imam Husain was killed, the tazias are taken out in procession for burial at Karbala. Chehlum, on the 20th of Safar, falling on the 40th day from Ashra, usually marks the end of the period of mourning. On the 12th of the month of Rabi-ul-Awwal falls Barawafat which marks the birthday of Prophet Muhammad, when alms art distributed and discourses on His life and missions are held. Shabe-barat. the 14th dav of Shaban, is a festival of rejoicing marking the birth of the 12th Imam. It is celebrated by a display of fireworks, distribution of sweets, and fatiha prayers for the peace of the souls of departed ones. Ramzan is the month of fasting, and on its expiry i.e. on visibility of the moon the festival of Id-ul-fitr is celebrated on Shawwal 1st by offering namaz in Idgahs and mosques, and exchanging gifts and greetings. The Id-uz-Zuha their last festival, is celebrated on the 10th of the month of Zilhij, to commemorate the occasion when Prophet Ibrahim resolved to treat his son Ismail as an offering to mark the highest form of the sacrificial spirit which was blessed by God the merciful who rewarded him by not hurting Ismail and having a sheep to sanctify the altar instead. The Muslims say their namaz (community prayers) in Idgahs and sacrifice sheep and goats. The typical feature of these two festivals is the eating of sewin.

Their important fairs held in the district are the urs celebrations of some important pirs (Muslim saints), who flourished here at one time or the other. Among these, the urs performed at Karwa Buzurg village and Phaphund are of most importance.

Sikh

The important festivals of Sikhs are the birthdays of Guru Nanak Deva and Guru Govind Singh. when processions are taken out, congregational prayers are held in gurdwaras and extracts from the holy Growth are recited. Their other festivals are Baisakhi and Lohri, local fairs are held at gurdwaras on each occasion.

Christian

The important festivals of the Christians are Christmas, falling on December 25th, marking the birthday of Jesus Christ, Good Friday which commemorates his crucifixion, and Easter in memory of his resurrection. New Year's Day (1st day of January) is also celebrated by them and the Christmas celebrations usually end with new year.

Jain

They celebrate the birth and the nirvana anniversaries of the last Tirthankara, Mahavira, the former on the 13th day of the bright half of Chaitra and the latter on the Deepawali day. The Paryushan or the Dashalakshanaparva, during the last days of Kartika. Phalguna and Asadha are the periodical holy days when the devotees observe, a fast and perform worship in temples.

Buddhists

The principal festival of the Buddhists is the Buddha Purnima, celebrated on the last day of Vaisakha, which marks the birthday of Buddha as well as his nirvana. A Statement (No, II) containing list of fairs in the district is appended at the end of the chapter.

SOCIAL LIFE

Property and Inheritance

The succession and inheritance to property other than agricultural holdings, among the Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists are being governed by the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. The enactment confers equal right on sons and daughters with regard to paternal property. But such property can also be distributed through wills or gifts. The sons, living under the same roof with their parents obtain the will of their parents in their favour, to the exclusion.of their sisters who are supposed to go to other families after marriage. Transfer of assets through gifts is not so common, as it involves much investment (as court fees) and legal complications. Devolution of agricultural property follows provisions of the U. P. Zamindari Abolition and Land Reforms Act, 1950. In respect of other civil property, the Muslims are governed by their personal law of succession and inheritance and the Christians by the Indian Succession Act, 1925.

The joint family and co-parcenary systems are still in existence, but they are rapidly disintegrating under the impact of new social and economic forces, and the growing individualistic outlook. The pattern of family in the district is patriarchal, and women are mostly dependent on their men folk for maintenance and protection, for only a few are economically independent and earn their own living.

Marriage and Morals

The distribution of the district population according to their marital status, as in 1971, was, as follows:

Since widowed females numbered 47,688. the svstem of widow marriage does not appear to have been popular in the district The number of married males and females, under 15 years of age was 1850 and 8389 respectively. indicating that. inspite of the law against child marriages they are still prevalent here The percentage of such marriages is, however, negligible. The people are by and large, monogamous Although polygamy is not usual it is confined to a few families of feudal background.

Among the Hindus, marriage is a sacrament, governed by the Dharma-Shustras and to some extent by customs which are now  changing with the times. Some variations in performance of marriage rites may occur from caste to caste or even from family to family within a caste, but the ceremonies like bhanwar or saptpadi, literally seven steps) and kanyadan (giving away the bride) are essential and common ones. Inter-caste marriages are rare but inter-subcaste marriages are becoming popular. After the enforcement of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, certain past restrictions like prohibition of marriage between persons of the same gotra have been done away with. This Act, however, makes polygamy illegal and invalidates marriage between sapindas (an agnate or cognate within seven generations on the paternal side and five generations on the maternal side) and also fixes the minimum marital age i.e. 18 years for the bridegroom and 15 years for the bride, and if the bride is below 18 years, the guardians consent is necessary. The marriage customs among the Hindus in the district are more or less similar to other parts of the State and elsewhere. Among Hindus once married, divorce or separation, though advised by law, are not considered advisable or good. So both make utmost effort to continue together A male issue is also considered a must to propitiate the elders and continue the line.

Among the Muslims, however, marriage is a civil contract. Their religion permits polygamy to the extent of four wives at a time, but a Muslim who is in government service, can not have more than one wife at a time. The mehr (dower), an amount payable by the husband to wife in a lumpsum in case of divorce by the husband, is always fixed before the ceremony takes place and may be paid either immediately or later in life. Marriages are usually negotiated and settled by the parents of the boy and the girl. Nikah or Aqad (marriage proper), which is the actual marriage ceremony, .is. performed at the bride's house by the Qazi, after obtaining the consent of both the contracting parties through two agents after which he reads the khutba. With this the ceremonial part-of the marriage is completed.

Among Christians marriages are governed by the Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872. as a amended in 1952. The marriage customs of the adherents of different denominations in the district usually follow the same general pattern as elsewhere. The marriage may be contracted by the concerned parties or arranged by their relatives. After engagement, the banns are published three times (once every week) by the pastor of the church, where marriage is to be solemnised, to give an opportunity, for objection,, if any. After that the marriage Is performed by a pastor in the church. The essential items of the ceremony are, the taking of marriage vows by the bride (sometimes the two exchange rings), pronouncement, of the couple as husband and wife by the pastor and signing of the marriage register by the couple arid the witnesses. The wedding festivities then usually follow at the bride's home.

The important ceremonies in a Skih marriage are the recitation of the extracts .from the Granth and the couple, goes around the holy book several times. Their marriage party also goes in form of a barat (marriage procession) like Hindus. After offering have been made at a gurdwara. the invitees are entertained.

In a Jain marriage, the sacred hymns from scriptures and the puja of their own deities is performed,, besides the observance of some of the Hindus rites.

Dowry

For removal of this evil from society, the government has enacted the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, which prohibited the giving and taking of dowry. But dowry giving still persists in the district as elsewhere. Among Hindus this system is flourishing very well, but the others are not free from this evil. The dowry, which is a burden on the brides' parents, is generally settled before the performance of marriage and offered or accepted in cash as well as in kind.

Civil Marriage

The Special Marriage Act, 1954, provides' for the performance and registration of marriages by a marriage officer. Differences in religion or caste impose no restrictions in civil marriages and the formal rites or ceremonies are also not required. Very few people, however, take recourse to such a marriage. The simplicity of procedure is one of the reasons of popularity of this system which is the only option for inter-communal alliances. Between-1971 and 1975 only 32 such marriages were solemnised in the district.

Widow Marriage

Despite the enabling provisions of this Hindu Widows Remarriage Act, 1856 (Act 15 of 1856), remarriage of Hindu widows, particularly among the so-called high castes, has not become popular. However, the members of the Scheduled Castes and other Backward Classes adhere to the old custom of allowing the widows to remarry a brother, generally the younger one of the deceased. In Muslim and Christian societies such a marriage is always permitted.

Divorce

The Dissolution of marriage by law or by custom was not permissible among the Hindus, but among Scheduled Castes and some Other Backward Classes, it was allowed with the sanction of the caste panchayat. But after the enactment of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. the facility of divorce and dissolution of marriage has become available, of course under special circumstances, to all sections of Hindu society. The personal law of Muslim allows husbands to divorce their wives on making payment of dower, but the Dissolution of Marriage Act, 1939, also empowers the wife to seek divorce from her husband. Divorce among Christians is governed by the Indian Divorce Act, 1969.

The incidence of divorce in the district is not large and generally the people stick to one spouse for fire. During the fast five years i.e. between 1970 and 1974, only 63. persons (40 men) have applied to court for divorce and in all the cases it was allowed.

Prostitution and Traffic in Woman

No organised prostitution centres or brothels are now said to be existing in the district, which is, perhaps, the result of the enforcement of the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Girls' Act, 1956. Formerly, there were, no doubt, many prostitutes end dancing girls plying their trade in the city and other towns of the district. The well-known places of prostitution were the Ramganj of Etawah town, Auraiya, Dibiapur. Bharthana towns and villages Malhausi, Hartauli, Hirmi, Bhatoli, Kursi. etc. The rescue officer, who visits once or twice a year, helps in rehabilitation of prostitutes and in 1963-84, 30 were rehabilitated. Some have, doubtless, adopted family life by marrying. Between 1972 and 1974. 15 convictions were made out of 20 prosecutions under the Act.

Gambling

The Public Gambling Act, 1867, as amended from time to time, declared gambling in public an offence punishable under law. The vice does not seem to have assumed serious proportions here. The people usually gamble only during the Dasahra and D3epawali mostly with playing cards. But the hobby of playing Dara and Satta has also entered into the society.

The prosecution and convictions made under Gambling Act, arc given below :

In 1971, the district contained 1,025 houseless persons, of whom 654 were males and 371 females, and of the total 856-were residing in rural areas and 169 in urban. The tahsilwise break-up of such population was 369 in Etawah 208 in Bharthana, 209 in Bidhuna and 239 in Auraiya tahsil. The institutional. population then numbered 1,963 persons (1,648 males and 315 females), of whom 1.201 were residing in rural areas and. 7^2 in urban areas. There tahsilwise distribution was 936 in Etawah, 357 in Bharthana, 192 in Bidhuna and 468 in Auraiya tahsil. There were 2,02,163 occupied residential houses in the district, of whom 1,82,329 were in rural areas and 19834 in urban areas.

The district then contained 2,45,706 households (group of persons ordinarily living together and taking meals from a common kitchen), of whom 2,19,699 were in rural areas and 26,007 in urban areas. The average size of a household in the district was about 5.89 persons and in the rural and urban areas it was 5.94 and 5.45 persona respectively. The households living in one-room tenements predominated, accounting for 31.4 per cent,28.6 in two-room,18.2 in three- -room, 11.3 in four-room and 10.2 in five-room tenements. The average density of persons per room in the district was about 2.33 persons and in the rural and urban areas it was 2.34 and 2.29 persons respectively, making it an almost equal distribution. In the district, the majority of persons i.e. 94.3 per cent, were found to be residing in their own houses and only 5.7 per cent were living in rented houses. In rural areas 97.6 per cent were residing in their own houses and 2.4 per cent in rented ones, while in urban areas 64 8 per cent were living in their own and 35.2 per cent in rented houses. The following statement gives the number and classification of households by their size and tenure status :

House in Cities

The houses in cities have not been built according to any set architectural style but a large number of houses, specially in Etawah city, are built in ravines. A general view of houses in Etawah city from the Jama Masjid presents the usual flat-roofed appearance of eastern cities, mixed with the view of hills through the fact that they follow the lines of ravines and are situated on slopes. The dwellings are generally pucca (made of bricks) and usually having more than one storey. The urban areas also contain a few kuccha houses (made of mud and unbaked bricks) which are used by poor people. The houses generally do not have much decoration except some jali work and openings in their outer portions. Big houses, generally occupied by rich persons, contain separate drawing room, dining room, bed rooms, kitchen, bath-room and latrine, etc. But such accommodation is not available to all the persons and majority of urban population lives in one or two room tenements, where a room is shared by all the family members or used as bed room-cum-dining room. The open space in the middle of the house known as aagan with a row of rooms or verandah on its sides and a latrine is a common feature of every house, but separate urinals have not been provided in majority of houses. Public latrines have also been constructed for those whose houses do not contain latrines. The houses do not contain sufficient ventilation and drainage facilities.

Houses in Villages

In rural areas , the dwellings are generally kutcha (single storey) and built are mud of unbaked bricks, and are roofed with wooden beams covered with planks with a layer of rr.ud above them, thatching grass or tiles. But due to urban influence, the pucca houses have also been built in rural areas and this tendency is increasing day by day. In khadir areas, where floods are common, the houses- are generally made tip of thatching .crass and mud. giving the appearance Of a hut. The rural houses generally contain spacious gheras and big aagans, but separate kitchen and gardens, etc., are rare. Latrines are also not provided in the houses and the field are being used for the purpose. Ventilation, better drainage, improved cattle sheds, etc., are now to be found in many villages, where people have taken interest in the community development schemes.

Furniture and Decorations

Social standing and economic status of the people determine the quality and quantity of furniture used by them. However, a cot to sleep oh is a necessary piece for every man irrespective of his income. For sitting, takhats (wooden divan) and murhas (reed chairs) are quite common in the rural area;. In more sophisticated families, particularly residing in urban preas, chairs and sofa sets are generally to be seen. People who dine in the kitchen use either aii asani or patli to sit upon and place the vessels on the floor, but those who eat in some other apartment use either the cot or the takhat as seats both for themselves and the ware Dining chairs and tables are becoming popular among those who have sufficient place to keep them. in. On festive occasions like Deepawali, Dasahra, Idd and Christmas, houses are decorated. Close contact with urban areas has: popularised face lifting of dwellings by wall calenders, framed pictures and mantel-pieces.

Dress

The influence of the way of life in urban areas has brought about significant changes in the living pattern of the rural masses influencing the clothing habits of the people. Traditional costumes are disappearing .specially from urban areas, yielding place to modern garments shaped from fine drapery, sometimes consisting of synthetic fabrics. Formal dress includes in the case of Hindus, a long coat or waist-coat and among Muslims a sherwani or achkan. Angarkha has become obsolete. Sari-blouse-petticoat trio is the most favourite dress of ladies of all denominations, though women in omi-choli-lahnga or dupatta-kameez-salwar combinations are usually met with. The use of haberdashery particularly of pngree and safa, has been almost been discarded. Men prefer to go bareheaded, or don Gandhi-caps. Shoes form an essential item of dress and very few people are seen going bare-footed.

Ornaments

men are not so fond of ornaments .sometime they wear a gold or silver ring on their finger, and a thin chain around the neck. Women, generally, adorn their wrists with churis (fbangles ) made of glass, silver or gold, anguthis (finger rings,), necklaces, nose-ring, nose-pendent, nose-stud, ear-ring, payal, bich.ua (only married women)," waist girdle and the like. The poor people usually go in for silver ornaments and the rich have gold pieces sometimes studded with precious stones and pearls. The lust for heavy jewellery is, however, on the decline partly due to the high, prices of gold and silver, and partly because of social transformation and -fear of loss.

Food

Wheat constitutes the- staple food of the people, other materials commonly consumed here as food being maize, barley, gram and jowar. Chapaties prepared from kneaded wheat or corn flour are generally eaten with dal or gur and milk. The pulses consumed here are urd, arhar, moony, chana. masur etc One major meal is taken at about 1 P. M. in the day. Breakfast consists of a glassful of milk, whey or tea and a chapati or two made on the previous evening. At nightfall the people take a light meal called byaloo before going to bed. Gur and sugar are the chief sweetening agents. Among edible fats ghee, vanaspati and mustard oil are more commonly used. .The pure ghee of Etawah is quite famous for its thickness and purity. Tea has entered the houses but it has not became a favourite beverage. Consumption of fresh vegetables and fruits is increasing. Spicy diet is not preferred, though people are quite fond of pickles, chutneys and bari-mangauris.

Communal Life

Amusement and Recreation—Among the rural folk , gossip, story-telling, collective singing while preparing moonj basket and spinning sutli are quite common in the idle hours. Performance, by Natak or Nautanki Mandlies, Bhajan Mandlies, Ramayana and Bhagwat Katha, exhibition and cultural programmes organized by various development departments apart from documentaries are also enjoyed thoroughly. People still take interest in monkey-gimmicks, bear dances and kathputli shows. A game of cards, chess, chopar, nogutia. carrom, etc.. is considered as refreshing as before.

The fairs organised in the district also serves the purpose of entertainment, which include the arrangement of danc/al, nauianki, drama, folk dances, aUalia and other amusements. In urban areas a visit to a cinema-house provides ample pastime. In 1971, there were three cinema houses in the district, two at Etawah and one at Auraiya city. Another source of cheap recreation is a broadcast receiving set, whose sales are going up. with tremendous volume in villages as well as in cities. The district also contains several recreational clubs, the better known being the Officers Club, Rotary club. Lions club and the like. There are also numberous recreational clubs in the rural areas. The district also contains many public libraries and reading rooms, which help people to spend their spare hours pastime. Common among games and sports here are kabaddi, gulli-danda, Kho-kho, kiteflying, foot-race, wresling etc The modern type of games, generally played in schools, colleges and important clubs are hockey, cricket, basket-ball, table-tennis and tennis etc. The annual sports and games meet are organised in schools and colleges and also on the district level.

The U. P. Zamindari Abolition and Land Reforms Act, 1950, (Act I of 1951). which came into operation in 1952. brought about many significant changes in the social and economic life of the peasants. The rural elite, which consisted mainly of the zamindars, who had exploited actual tillers of the .land for several centuries are now replaced by a community of progressive farmers owning land and cultivating it with full vigour by adopting modern methods of agriculture. Not only has the per capita availability of farm produce increased but the general prosperity of the people has improved, manifesting itself in better food, dress, dwelling and other habits. New educational institutions are coming up rapidly through the voluntary effort of people to combat the forces of ignorance which had impeded the mental growth of the rural society which is undergoing rapid transformation to meet the fresh challenges of life successfully.

STATEMENT I

Area and Population Population